The word “utopia” was first coined by Sir Thomas More as a way to describe an idyllic and perfect world. As we see in many cases in literature, the utopia is also defined as “imaginary.” In fact, utopia actually means “nowhere” in Greek, ou-Topos. In Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, the community is described to be separated from society and on a remote and fictional island. His purpose is to highlight the debate over whether perfection is achievable or not in Renaissance-era Europe. More’s Utopia is communal and clearly socialist before the development of the definition of socialist ideology. This was an attempt for More’s audience to imagine a society without the rule of tyrants and oppressive hierarchies. More’s work displayed his defiance over the institutions in power at that time with his contrarian views on social hierarchy, agriculture, education, marriage, and death. Interestingly, Sir Thomas More includes himself as a character in his own novel. The various characters in Utopia, drawing on various themes from the Enlightenment, discuss the superiority of common property over the European politics of the time. 

Even while More was the first to coin the word ‘Utopia,’ symbols of utopias have existed for much longer. This can be seen with Christianity’s Garden of Eden in the Old Testament and Plato’s Republic that requires communal living among the ruling class and conveys rewards solely based on merit. The communes in the United States are oftentimes described as the “New Eden” in the Atlantic. Even while the utopia is seen as an unattainable symbol in many dystopian literary works like Brave New World, The Handmaid’s Tale, 1984, and Animal Farm, many European philosophers and political theorists found that the utopia was a possibility. Fortunately for them, the United States of America was the perfect testing ground for such theories. In fact, pre-marxism socialism in the United States originated with these 19th century utopian communities. Some of the most notable socialist experiments are Brook Farm, Icaria, the Oneida Community, New Harmony, and the Shakers. This followed the Second Great Awakening of American history, a religious revival. Like More’s fictional Utopia, Icaria is a remote and isolated island. The name Icaria came from the Greek myth of Icarus, who flew too close to the sun, just like how the utopia is unachievable because it comes too close to perfection, which is also impossible. Many of these communes arose due to transcendentalism and in response to the rapid industrialization of the industrial revolution that greatened the rift between society, the natural world, and people. 

Robert Owen is one of the most notable Utopian proponents with his New Harmony commune in Indiana. Owen was a Welsh industrialist who turned to socialism and social reform. Transcendentalist Utopians founded Brook Farm based on Charles Fourier’s idea of socialism. Brook Farm included the well-known author Nathaniel Hawthorne and invited Ralph Waldo Emerson, who later declined. 

In a more modern perspective, communes are oftentimes associated with cults. For example, the 1980s Bhuddafield was an attempt to revive the 19th century Utopias of Fourier, Owen, and Transcendentalist Utopians: a group working towards enlightenment. The leader of Bhuddafield, Michel Rostand, kept the community members focused on healthy living. Underneath this mask, there was much sexual exploitation and psychological and emotional abuse. There is no clear line between Utopian communes and cults. 

So where is the definition between communal living and cults? 

Despite Sir Thomas More’s original purpose for Utopia to go against hierarchies, communes usually end up evoking the potential for groups to become more controlling and sinister. The Branch Davidians and the Children of God of the mid-1900s have roots in Christianity, but developed into cults due to their deceptive and charismatic leaders. The Manson Family and the Peoples Temple attracted members due to social and cultural beliefs. The Manson Family had the shared focus of a race war while the Peoples Temple advocated for civil rights. Even while the cultural stigma behind communes has changed over time, it’s important to note the origins of communes and how they are a mainstream part of American identity. 

A lot of times, cults are led by a charismatic figure. This means that it’s important to note the psychological component involved in modern communal living. While in the 1900s, it was to escape the “chains of society” or capitalism and societal norms, the purpose for such communities has distorted with time. The major difference between Utopian communes and cults is that cults have a larger psychological component due to the influence of a charismatic leader.

Despite extensive differences in goals and ideologies, cult leaders have much in common. Cult leaders are characterized to be narcissistic, which negatively affects the shaping of the cult. This narcissism found in cult leaders is known as ‘traumatic narcissism,’ where cult leaders will prey on others’ trauma to gain a following. Not only are cult leaders charismatic, they are also very intuitive when it comes to reading other people. Oftentimes, the “us-versus-them” mentality is seen in cults to derive power from hatred. 

But were the 19th century communes also cults? Some characteristics of these “Utopias” make it seem so. For example, the Shakers believed that their leader, Mother Ann Lee, was the Second Coming of Christ, just like how the Manson Family viewed Charles Manson as a manifestation of Jesus Christ. The job of the Onedians commune was to bring in Heaven by building it themselves, which is a display of the idea of such a commune being a utopia. Owenites (followers of Robert Owen) were non-religious, but still incredibly idealistic. Robert Owen even fits many characteristics of cult leaders. He technically owned the entirety of New Harmony, so ownership wasn’t collectivized at all, and many argued that he needed to turn things over to the community. It can be interpreted that Owen himself was the entire ‘community’ because he owned everything. 

Even so, 19th century communes don’t exactly fit into the category of “cult.” Groups like Brook Farms and the Oneida Communities especially don’t fit into this category. Even while there are examples of some behavioral control, there isn’t the application of thought and emotional control as seen with the cults of the mid 20th century. In contrast, many of these 19th century communes failed because of a lack of leadership, which is something that cults don’t lack.